The Mughals called themselves so after their Mongol ancestry. Unlike the Delhi Sultanate, which was ruled by many dynasties, Mughal period witnessed rule by a single dynasty for nearly two and a half centuries? Sher Shah Suri’s rule was the only break in between. The Mughals established an empire which roughly coincides with the present Indian Territory.
The Mughal period is also described as Early Modern. This is because this era witnessed major changes in trade, agriculture and technology. For instance, with the creation of more sea-routes and expansion in trade, currency came to be used increasingly. These changes were supported by a stable, centralized empire.
Political Conditions
The political conditions in the North West around this time, made Babur’s conquest easier. Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi and Punjab was trying to establish a large empire which alarmed the Afghan chiefs. The rulers of Bihar and Punjab had revolted against him. The Rajput rulers were also plotting against him. Daulat Khan, the Governor of Punjab, along with the uncle of Ibrahim Lodi, invited Babur, the King of Kabul, to attack this region.
Babur
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, the founder of Mughal empire in India, was born in A.D. 1483, in Farghana, a small principality in Central Asia. He traced his ancestry to the two warrior tribes of Central Asia led by Timur and Chengiz Khan. He became King at the early age of twelve, upon his father’s death. Soon he lost his kingdom to the warring tribes. Failing to conquer it back after several attempts he turned eastwards and conquered Kabul in A.D 1504. Daulat Khan and Rana Sanga thought that Babur would raid his area and return to Kabul with the loot. But when Babur occupied parts of Punjab, they turned against him. Babur defeated Daulat Khan and marched towards Delhi.
First Battle of Panipat
On hearing about Babur’s march towards Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi set out with a large army to meet the enemy. The two armies met at the fateful battlefield of Panipat on April 21st , 1526. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated and killed and his army was routed. The reasons for Babur’s success were:
Babur’s small army consisting of 12000 men was well trained and disciplined, while Ibrahim’s huge army was indisciplined and disorganized.
Babur used artillery, it was unknown to Ibrahim Lodi’s army till then. In fact, he used cannons in warfare for the first time in India. His long practiced enveloping tactics of the central Asian cavalry proved highly effective against a large unwieldy army of 80000 cavalry and 500 war elephants.
Babur soon occupied Delhi and Agra and laid the foundations of the Mughal Empire. Agra was made the capital.
Having won Agra and Delhi, Babur went on to suppress the rulers of the Rajputana and other chiefs upto the regions of Bengal and Bihar. By 1530, he had acquired a large empire in the north in the richest of the areas in India, the Ganga Jamuna Doab. Before he could consolidate his empire, Babur died at the age of 48 in A.D. 1530.
Humayun
His eldest son, Naseeruddin Humayun, succeeded Babur. Babur had established a vast empire, but did not live long enough to consolidate it. Humayun faced trouble from the very beginning. Babur advised Humayun to treat his brothers generously. But they did not co-operate with him.
War and Revolts
When Humayun ascended the throne, enemies surrounded him. The Afghans and the Rajputs were still hostile. Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, wanted to extend his empire. Sher Shah, the Afghan ruler of Bihar, aspired to overthrow the Mughal rule ascend the throne of Delhi. The first to revolt was Kamran, Humayun’s brother. Revolts also broke out in Bundelkhund, Jaunpur and Bihar. Humayun was able to suppress these revolts partially, but before he could achieve complete success, he had to return to Delhi to check the revolt of Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat. Humayun defeated him at Mandasore but as soon as his back was turned, Bahadur Shah recaptured Gujarat.
War Against Sher Shah
Humayun had just defeated Bahadur Shah when he got the news of Sher Shah’s revolt and subsequent conquest of Bengal. Humayun marched towards Bengal and captured the fort of Gaur. But the wily Sher Shah avoided a confrontation with the Mughals and allowed Humayun to enter Bengal. This easy victory over Sher Shah elated Humayun. Meanwhile, his brothers were hatching a conspiracy in Agra to overthrow him. He was forced to rush to Agra. Taking advantage of the situation Sher Shah attacked the retreating forces of Humayun at Chausa and defeated him in A.D. 1539. In order to save his life Humayun had to jump into the flooded river where a Bhisti or water carrier saved him from drowning.
Elated with success Sher Shah planned another attack on the Mughal army in A.D. 1540. The two armies met at Kannauj and Humayun was defeated. Humayun fled for his life. Sher Shah occupied the throne of Delhi.
Having lost his throne and failed to secure Kamran’s help, Humayun was forced to wander through Rajasthan and Sindh. At Amarkot, he married a young girl called Hamida Banu and a son was born to him who later on became the greatest Mughal emperor-Akbar. At Amarkot Humayun also met Bairam Khan, who became his faithful friend and later the guardian of his young son, Akbar.failing to get support from any of his brothers, Humayun left for Persia. With the help of Persian forces, Humayun attacked his brother and captured Kandahar. Sher Shah died in A.D. 1545. Having consolidated his position in Afghanistan, Humayun marched towards Delhi to regain his lost empire. He successfully recaptured Delhi and Agra after a gap of 15 years. Humayun re-established the Mughal rule but did not live long enough to enjoy the fruits of his labour. He died in A.D. 1556, when he fell from his library staircase.
Sher Shah Suri
Farid khan was a son of the Jagirdar of Sasaram, in Bihar, named Hasan Khan. He managed his father’s Jagir efficiently, but quarrels with his stepmother forced him to seek employment under the ruler of Bihar. Once he happened to a kill a tiger single-handedly and came to be known as Sher Khan. He became the regent, as the ruler of Bihar was a minor. Later he himself became the ruler of Bihar. While Humayun was busy in Gujarat, he captured Gaur, which was the capital of Bengal. He also defeated Humayun twice-at Chausa in A.D. 1539 and then and then again in Kanauj in A.D. 1540. Humayun had to flee from India and Sher Khan crowned himself Emperor at Delhi. Sher Shah ruled for only a short period of five years. But those five years are glorious pages in History.
Sher Shah expanded the empire by annexing Punjab, Sind and Multan to his empire.he also conquered Gwalior, Malwa in Central India and a large part of Rajasthan. His empire now extended from Bengal in the east to Indus in the west. He died in A.D. 1545, in Bundelkhand, when gunpowder exploded near him accidentally.
Administration
Sher Shah is regarded as the greatest administrators in Indian history. He was a brilliant General and far-sighted administrator. The Mughal administration was based on the system started by him. He introduced many reforms for the welfare of his subjects, both Hindus and Muslims. Hindus were also appointed to high posts.
The empire was divided into 47 sarkars. Each sarkar was further sub-divided into pargana. The sarkars were put in charge under three main officers; the shiqdar-i-shiqdaran was in charge of finance, law, order and the army. The munsif-i-munsifan collected the revenue taxes, while the qazi was the chief judge.
In order to keep himself informed about the activities of his officers, Sher Shah also organized an efficient spy system.
Revenue System
Sher Shah is renowned for introducing an efficient revenue system. With the help of his revenue minister, all land was measured and its yield was assessed. Peasants paid the state one-third of the produce as taxes. Taxes could be paid in cash or in kind. Although the revenue was collected strictly, the peasants were given loans in times of natural calamities like droughts or floods. Documents were maintained properly. The revenue system of Sher Shah impressed Akbar so much that he adopted it with only minor changes.
Trade and Commerce
With the establishment of law and order throughout the kingdom and a network of good roads, trade and commerce began to flourish. He issued new currency and the simple tax system during his reign which helped to promote trade and commerce. To encourage foreign trade, custom duty was levied only at two points in the east and in the west. Sher Shah also introduced a new silver coin called the rupia, which is still a unit of Indian currency. Weights and measures were standardized.
Public Welfare
For the welfare of his subjects, and for the promotion of trade, Sher Shah built an excellent network of roads throughout his empire. These were provided with rest houses or sarais at intervals. 1700 sarais were constructed with separate rooms for Hindus and Muslims. He followed a policy of religious tolerance and placed people in the administration according to their merit. Trees were planted on both sides of the roads and muqaddams were responsible for the safety of travelers and their property. The sarais gradually became centres of trade with the towns and cities developing around them.
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